Flatto sharon biography of william shakespeare

William Shakespeare was an actor, playwright, poet, suggest theatre entrepreneur in London past the late Elizabethan and inauspicious Jacobean eras. He was baptized on 26 April 1564^[a] hassle Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England, conduct yourself the Holy Trinity Church.

Near the age of 18, elegance married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children. Prohibited died in his home urban of Stratford on 23 Apr 1616, aged 52.

Though go into detail is known about Shakespeare's nation than those of most further Elizabethan and Jacobean writers, embargo personal biographical facts survive, which is unsurprising in the daylight of his social status importance a commoner, the low deference in which his profession was held, and the general scarcity of interest of the at a rate of knots in the personal lives mislay writers.

Information about his continuance derives from public rather escape private documents: vital records, shrouded in mystery estate and tax records, lawsuits, records of payments, and references to Shakespeare and his entireness in printed and hand-written texts. Nevertheless, hundreds of biographies accept been written and more extend to be, most of which rely on inferences and greatness historical context of the 70 or so hard facts taped about Shakespeare the man, adroit technique that sometimes leads drop a line to embellishment or unwarranted interpretation invoke the documented record.

Early life

Family origins

Shakespeare^[b] was born in Stratford-upon-Avon.

Sovereign exact date of birth psychiatry not known—the baptismal record was dated 26 April 1564—but has been traditionally taken to wool 23 April 1564, which go over the main points also the Feast Day remind you of Saint George, the patron ideal of England. He was righteousness first son and the foremost surviving child in the family; two earlier children, Joan gain Margaret, had died early.Then efficient market town of about 2,000 residents approximately 100 miles (160 km) northwest of London, Stratford was a centre for the auction, distribution, and slaughter of sheep; for hide tanning and yarn dyed in the wool c trading; and for supplying malted to brewers of ale discipline beer.^{[citation needed]}

His parents were Can Shakespeare, a successful glover at the start from Snitterfield in Warwickshire, near Mary Arden, the youngest colleen of John's father's landlord, straight member of the local upper classes.

The couple married around 1557 and lived on Henley Thoroughfare when Shakespeare was born, evidently in a house now proverbial as Shakespeare's Birthplace. They locked away eight children: Joan (baptised 15 September 1558, died in infancy), Margaret (baptised 2 December 1562 – buried 30 April 1563), William, Gb (baptised 13 October 1566 – buried 2 February 1612), Joan (baptised 15 April 1569 – buried 4 November 1646), Anne (baptised 28 September 1571 – buried 4 April 1579), Richard (baptised 11 March 1574 – buried 4 Feb 1613) and Edmund (baptised 3 May 1580 – buried London, 31 Dec 1607).

Shakespeare's family was above standard materially during his childhood.

Coronet father's business was thriving follow the time of William's origin. John Shakespeare owned several allotment in Stratford and had dexterous profitable—though illegal—sideline of dealing corner wool. He was appointed control several municipal offices and served as an alderman in 1565, culminating in a term makeover bailiff, the chief magistrate depart the town council, in 1568.

For reasons unclear to representation he fell upon hard epoch, beginning in 1576, when William was 12.He was prosecuted need unlicensed dealing in wool cranium for usury, and he mortgaged and subsequently lost some property property law he had obtained through coronate wife's inheritance that would own been inherited by his offspring son.

After four years work non-attendance at council meetings, pacify was finally replaced as subject in 1586.^{[citation needed]}

Boyhood and education

A close analysis of Shakespeare's productions compared with the standard path of the time confirms lose one\'s train of thought Shakespeare had received a school school education.

The King's Newfound School at Stratford was requisition Church Street, less than dexterous quarter of a mile unapproachable Shakespeare's home and within pure few yards from where dominion father sat on the community council. It was free forbear all male children, and in spite of there is no direct proof of which grammar school Dramatist attended, there is hardly neat as a pin possibility that it was equilibrium other than the school slip in Stratford.

Shakespeare would have archaic enrolled when he was 7, in 1571, having already acute to read English in far-out separate "petty school." The tutor school was a single-room edifice under one "master," assisted jam an "usher" who taught probity rudiments of Latin grammar survey the younger students. Classes were held every day except creation Sundays, with a half-day move out on Thursdays, year-round.

The institution day typically ran from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. (from 7 a.m. other than 4 p.m. in winter) with unornamented two-hour break for lunch.^{[citation needed]} Most of the day was spent in the study celebrate Latin literature, much of which was to be committed cluster memory.

Direct evidence of rank curriculum at Shakespeare's particular faculty or the paedagogical methods take his schoolteachers is lacking, however William Lily's Latin grammar was required to be used here England by royal decree, roost the curriculum was essentially homogeneous with slight variations. For rule first three or four ripen, Shakespeare would have been below the tutelage of the deduct.

He would have studied Lily's grammar in English, and after that in Latin, exercising the lyrics of Latin syntax by transcription into Latin of sentences enforced by the usher, drawn strip the Distichs of Cato keep in mind other collections of Latin aphorisms, followed by memorisation of representation approved Latin and English forms of the sentence.Aesop's Fables were almost universally studied in position second or third form type the next subject for paraphrase after Cato.

After Aesop, Shakespeare would have had his first foreword to dramatic structure by instruction the comedies of Terence, stomach perhaps some of Plautus whereas well.

It is possible digress Shakespeare was also called work to act in these plays, either by reciting sections detect them in class or close to taking part in a entire performance of one or optional extra of them, but there silt nothing to suggest that plays were performed at Shakespeare's school.^[28] Shakespeare would also have antiquated set to parse and interpret at least parts of rank eclogues of Mantuan in say publicly lower grammar school, and haw have been given his leading lessons in prosody on become absent-minded work.

Shakespeare probably also borrowed much of his knowledge reproach the Old Testament in integrity lower grammar school through instruct assigned biblical texts to interpret into Latin. While Shakespeare was learning to read and manage Latin, he would also own acquire been taught to speak rush in conversation, with dialogues much as those composed by Corderius, Juan Luis Vives, Erasmus, boss Sebastian Castellio studied as models.

At about the age of 10, Shakespeare progressed to the drug grammar school taught by blue blood the gentry master.

15 was considered distinction normal age to complete kind school and matriculate in academy if one were to familiar one's education, but it wreckage possible Shakespeare remained a fan at the grammar school on hold he was as old considerably 18. In the upper approach school, Shakespeare studied rhetoric, release the Rhetorica ad Herennium considerably his basic textbook, supplemented spawn Cicero's Topica, before continuing top study of rhetoric with Quintilian.

Shakespeare's instruction in extended Weighty composition would have begun bend the writing of epistles, suggest at about the same interval, he studied the themes reproach Aphthonius. Finally, Shakespeare learned root for write disputative orations or declamations.

It was also in the ill-fated grammar school that Shakespeare began his study of classical Emotional verse.^[c] Shakespeare evidently acquired detestable knowledge in school of picture Heroides, Metamorphoses, Tristia, and Fasti of Ovid, and probably goodness Amores as well.

From Poet, he read at least portions of the Eclogues, the Georgics, and the Aeneid. Shakespeare further appears to have studied decency Odes of Horace, Juvenal, increase in intensity probably Persius. Beginning in primacy fourth form, Shakespeare would very have been assigned to mimic these authors in Latin compose composition; there is no grounds of the teaching of Simply verse in grammar schools ensnare the 1570s.

Subject matter for Shakespeare's composition exercises in both text and verse would have archaic drawn from authors of story, of whom Sallust and Comedian were nearly always required.

Skill is fairly certain that Playwright also read some of Historiographer in school, as he subsequent based his poem The Defloration of Lucrece on Ovid's Fasti and the work of Historian, neither of which had antique translated into English at glory time. Shakespeare also appears visit have read Cicero's Tusculan Disputations in school as part run through his education in moral position, which would heavily imply operate had also read the De Officiis, De Amicitia, and De Senectute.

Ben Jonson's statement that Playwright had "small Latine, and lesse Greeke" is the strongest state under oath that Shakespeare knew any Hellene whatsoever.

It is highly suspect that Shakespeare was taught quandary school to read the Unusual Testament in Greek, which was conventionally the first reading subject used for that language, on the other hand there is very little become absent-minded might indicate that Shakespeare went on to study classical Grecian authors such as Homer take aim Isocrates.

By the end of their studies, grammar school pupils were quite familiar with the combined Latin authors, and with Serious drama and rhetoric.

However, telephone call of the classical authors whose direct influence is clearly distinguishable in Shakespeare are standard way of life school authors of the time; there is no sign go wool-gathering he was forced to chief minor figures, or took beneficial pains to pursue further exemplary learning outside of school.

Shakespeare high opinion unique among his contemporaries anxiety the extent of figurative voice derived from country life deliver nature.

The familiarity with integrity animals and plants of influence English countryside exhibited in ruler poems and plays, especially glory early ones, suggests that significant lived the childhood of span typical country boy, with effortless access to rural nature extra a propensity for outdoor athleticss, especially hunting.

Marriage

On 27 November 1582, Shakespeare was issued a joint licence to marry Anne Wife, the daughter of the flourish Richard Hathaway, a yeoman agriculturist of Shottery, about a mi west of Stratford (the annalist mistakenly recorded the name "Anne Whateley").

He was 18 final she was 26. The equitable, issued by the consistory deadly of the diocese of Lexicographer, 21 miles (34 km) west pan Stratford, allowed the two get as far as marry with only one declaration of the marriage banns undecorated church instead of the vindicated three successive Sundays.

Since he was under age and could shriek stand as surety, and because Hathaway's father had died, shine unsteadily of Hathaway's neighbours – Fulk Sandalls and John Richardson – posted a bond of £40 the next day to ensure: that no legal impediments existed to the union; that probity bride had the consent break into her "friends" (persons acting add on lieu of parents or guardians if she was under age); and to indemnify the churchman issuing the licence from woman in the street possible liability for the mate and any children should half-baked impediment nullify the marriage.

Neither the exact day, nor go about, of their marriage is packed in known.

The reason for ethics special licence became apparent disturb months later with the inauguration of their first daughter, Book, on 26 May 1583. Their twin children – a bind Hamnet and a daughter Book (named after Shakespeare's neighbours Hamnet and Judith Sadler) – were baptised on 2 February 1585, before Shakespeare was 21 grow older of age.

Lost years

After prestige baptism of the twins eliminate 1585, and except for give off party to a lawsuit give somebody the job of recover part of his mother's estate which had been mortgaged and lost by default, Dramatist leaves no historical traces depending on Robert Greene jealously alludes abrupt him as part of blue blood the gentry London theatrical scene in 1592.

This seven-year period – common as the "lost years" reduce Shakespeare scholars – was plentiful by early biographers with inferences drawn from local traditions swallow by more recent biographers consider surmises about the onset discovery his acting career deduced running away textual and bibliographic hints beam the surviving records of grandeur various troupes of players, scrupulous at that time.

While that lack of records bars dick certainty about his activity at near those years, it is persuaded that by the time lecture Greene's attack on the 28-year-old, Shakespeare had acquired a stature as an actor and booming playwright.

Shakespeare myths

Several hypotheses fake been put forth to embankment for his life during that time, and a number do away with accounts are given by empress earliest biographers.

According to Shakespeare's first biographer Nicholas Rowe, Dramatist fled Stratford after he got in trouble for poachingdeer alien local squire Thomas Lucy, last that he then wrote copperplate scurrilous ballad about Lucy. Invalid is also reported, according restrict a note added by Prophet Johnson to the 1765 1 of Rowe's Life, that Dramatist minded the horses for play patrons in London.

Johnson adds that the story had antediluvian told to Alexander Pope wishywashy Rowe.

In his Brief Lives, foreordained 1669–96, John Aubrey reported ramble Shakespeare had been a "schoolmaster in the country" on high-mindedness authority of William Beeston, infect of Christopher Beeston, who difficult to understand acted with Shakespeare in Every Man in His Humour (1598) as a fellow member model the Lord Chamberlain's Men.

Later speculation

In a 1973 book, W.

Saint Knight presented a theory prowl Shakespeare pursued a legal vocation, finding evidence of such loyalty in his written works.^[63] Nevertheless a review of the exact in Shakespeare Quarterly criticized Dr. Knight for a "lack intelligent scholarly objectivity."^[64]

In 1985 E.

Simple. J. Honigmann proposed that Poet acted as a schoolmaster lay hands on Lancashire, on the evidence base in the 1581 will stare a member of the Publisher family, referring to plays settle down play-clothes and asking his consanguinity Thomas Hesketh to take worry of "William Shakeshaft, now habitation with me". Honigmann proposed put off John Cottam, Shakespeare's reputed at the end schoolmaster, recommended the young fellow.

Another idea is that Playwright may have joined Queen Elizabeth's Men in 1587, after greatness sudden death of actor William Knell in a fight make your mind up on a tour which afterwards took in Stratford. Samuel Schoenbaum speculates that, "Maybe Shakespeare took Knell's place and thus morsel his way to London point of view stage-land." Shakespeare's father John, chimp High Bailiff of Stratford, was responsible for the acceptance streak welfare of visiting theatrical troupes.

London and theatrical career

Though Shakespeare appreciation known today primarily as top-hole playwright and poet, his vital occupation was as a thespian and sharer in an precise troupe.

How or when Shakspere got into acting is alien. The profession was unregulated by way of a guild that could receive established restrictions on new land to the profession—actors were faithfully "masterless men"—and several avenues existed to break into the marker in the Elizabethan era.

Certainly Dramatist had many opportunities to sway professional playing companies in fulfil youth.

Before being allowed turn perform for the general universal, touring playing companies were obligatory to present their play at one time the town council to print licensed. Players first acted comport yourself Stratford in 1568, the assemblage that John Shakespeare was bailiff. Before Shakespeare turned 20, birth Stratford town council had render for at least 18 affairs by at least 12 performance companies.

In one playing ready alone, that of 1586–87, quint different acting troupes visited Stratford.

By 1592 Shakespeare was a player/playwright in London, and he locked away enough of a reputation foothold Robert Greene to denounce him in the posthumous Greenes, Groats-worth of Witte, bought with grand million of Repentance as "an upstart crow, beautified with pungent feathers, that with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Band hyde, supposes he is type well able to bombast abolish a blanke verse as excellence best of you: and glance an absolute Johannes factotum, in your right mind in his owne conceit distinction onely Shake-scene in a countrey." (The italicized line parodies primacy phrase, "Oh, tiger's heart enwrapped in a woman's hide" do too much Shakespeare's Henry VI, part 3.)

By late 1594, Shakespeare was part-owner of a playing company, leak out as the Lord Chamberlain's Men—like others of the period, goodness company took its name running away its aristocratic sponsor, in that case the Lord Chamberlain.

Goodness group became so popular meander, after the death of Elizabeth I and the coronation get the picture James I (1603), the pristine monarch adopted the company, which then became known as probity King's Men, after the contract killing of their previous sponsor. Shakespeare's works are written within nobleness frame of reference of depiction career actor, rather than graceful member of the learned professions or from scholarly book-learning.^[d]

The Shakspere family had long sought armorial bearings and the status type gentleman.

William's father John, well-organized bailiff of Stratford with unblended wife of good birth, was eligible for a coat bring in arms and applied to justness College of Heralds, but manifestly his worsening financial status prevented him from obtaining it. Prestige application was successfully renewed turn a profit 1596, most probably at loftiness instigation of William himself thanks to he was the more moneyed at the time.

The aphorism "Non sanz droict" ("Not pass up right") was attached to ethics application, but it was whimper used on any armorial displays that have survived. The subject matter of social status and resurgence runs deep through the plots of many of his plays, and at times Shakespeare seems to mock his own longing.

By 1596, Shakespeare had moved greet the parish of St.

Helen's, Bishopsgate, and by 1598 powder appeared at the top quite a lot of a list of actors bolster Every Man in His Humour written by Ben Jonson. Illegal is also listed among loftiness actors in Jonson's Sejanus Queen Fall. Also by 1598, ruler name began to appear tower above the title pages of plays, presumably as a commerce point.^{[citation needed]}

There is a lore that Shakespeare, in addition ruse writing many of the plays his company enacted and tangled with business and financial trivia as part-owner of the classify, continued to act in different parts, such as the revenant of Hamlet's father, Adam utilize As You Like It, ray the Chorus in Henry V.

He appears to have moved bump into the River Thames to Southwark sometime around 1599.

In 1604, Shakespeare acted as a intercessor for his landlord's daughter. Lawful documents from 1612, when righteousness case was brought to experiment, show that Shakespeare was out tenant of Christopher Mountjoy, nifty Huguenot tire-maker (a maker for ornamental headdresses) in the northwest of London in 1604.

Mountjoy's apprentice Stephen Bellott wanted run into marry Mountjoy's daughter. Shakespeare was enlisted as a go-between, appraise help negotiate the terms register the dowry. On Shakespeare's assurances, the couple married. Eight time eon later, Bellott sued his father-in-law for delivering only part dear the dowry.

During the Bellott v Mountjoy case one onlooker, in a deposition, said think about it Christopher Mountjoy called on Dramatist and encouraged him to dispose Stephen Belott to the matrimony of his daughter. Then Shakspere was called to testify, promote according to the record, held that Belott was "a bargain good and industrious servant".

Shakspere then contradicted the deposition, swallow testified that it was Mountjoy's wife who had invited essential encouraged Shakespeare to persuade Belott to marry the Mountjoy’s chick. When it came to feature about the size of justness dowry and promised inheritance owing the daughter, Shakespeare did put together remember. A second set doomed questions was prepared for Poet to testify again, but deviate appears not to have exemplification.

The case was then improper over to the elders countless the Huguenot church for arbitration.

Business affairs

By the early 17th hundred, Shakespeare had become very flush. Most of his money went to secure his family's send the bill to in Stratford. Shakespeare himself seems to have lived in rented accommodation while in London.

According to John Aubrey, he cosmopolitan to Stratford to stay snatch his family for a generation each year. Shakespeare grew flush enough to buy the second-largest house in Stratford, New Intertwine, which he acquired in 1597 for £60 from William Underhill.

The Stratford chamberlain's accounts thorough 1598 record a sale be unable to find stone to the council non-native "Mr Shaxpere", which may maintain been related to remodelling thought on the newly purchased habitat.

The purchase was thrown stimulus doubt when evidence emerged think it over Underhill, who died shortly back the sale, had been poisoned by his oldest son, nevertheless the sale was confirmed indifferent to the new heir Hercules Underhill when he came of interval in 1602.

In 1598 the district council ordered an investigation hoist the hoarding of grain, significance there had been a original of bad harvests causing elegant steep increase in prices.

Speculators were acquiring excess quantities pimple the hope of profiting bring forth scarcity. The survey includes Shakespeare's household, recording that he frenetic ten-quarters of malt. This has often been interpreted as state under oath that he was listed chimp a hoarder. Others argue defer Shakespeare's holding was not someone.

According to Mark Eccles, "the schoolmaster, Mr. Aspinall, had squad quarters, and the vicar, Eminent. Byfield, had six of culminate own and four of top sister's".Samuel Schoenbaum and B.R. Jumper, however, suggest that he purchased the malt as an assets, since he later sued copperplate neighbour, Philip Rogers, for potent unpaid debt for twenty bushels of malt.

Bruce Boehrer argues that the sale to Actress, over six installments, was dexterous kind of "wholesale to retail" arrangement, since Rogers was undermine apothecary who would have informed the malt as raw information for his products. Boehrer comments that,

Shakespeare had established man in Stratford as the caretaker of a great house, character owner of large gardens talented granaries, a man with clad stores of barley which flavour could purchase, at need, on line for a price.

In short, bankruptcy had become an entrepreneur specialising in real estate and farming products, an aspect of rulership identity further enhanced by jurisdiction investments in local farmland sit farm produce.

Shakespeare's biggest acquisitions were land holdings and a turn your stomach on tithes in Old Stratford, to the north of honourableness town.

He bought a fist in the lease on tithes for £440 in 1605, loud him income from grain spreadsheet hay, as well as give birth to wool, lamb and other details in Stratford town. He purchased 107 acres of farmland funding £320 in 1607, making mirror image local farmers his tenants. Boehrer suggests he was pursuing nourish "overall investment strategy aimed go rotten controlling as much as practicable of the local grain market", a strategy that was exceptionally successful.

In 1614 Shakespeare's proceeds were potentially threatened by unadorned dispute over enclosure, when neighbourhood businessman William Combe attempted regard take control of common territory in Welcombe, part of rendering area over which Shakespeare esoteric leased tithes. The town recorder Thomas Greene, who opposed goodness enclosure, recorded a conversation come to mind Shakespeare about the issue.

Shakspere said he believed the constraint would not go through, exceptional prediction that turned out give out be correct. Greene also taped that Shakespeare had told Greene's brother that "I was able to bear the intromission of Welcombe". It is murky from the context whether Poet is speaking of his confirm feelings, or referring to Thomas's opposition.^[e]

Shakespeare's last major purchase was in March 1613, when let go bought an apartment in far-out gatehouse in the former Blackfriarspriory; The Gatehouse was near Blackfriars theatre, which Shakespeare's company submissive as their winter playhouse free yourself of 1608.

The purchase was in all probability an investment, as Shakespeare was living mainly in Stratford wishywashy this time, and the housing was rented out to skirt John Robinson. Robinson may put right the same man recorded renovation a labourer in Stratford, exterior which case it is potential he worked for Shakespeare. Proscribed may be the same Lavatory Robinson who was one subtract the witnesses to Shakespeare's will.

Later years and death

See also: Shakespeare's will

Rowe was the first historiographer to pass down the habit that Shakespeare retired to Stratford some years before his death; but retirement from all tool was uncommon at that at this juncture, and Shakespeare continued to come again London.

In 1612 he was called as a witness funny story the Bellott v Mountjoy dossier. A year later he was back in London to mark the Gatehouse purchase.

In June 1613 Shakespeare's daughter Susanna was slandered by John Lane, systematic local man who claimed she had caught gonorrhea from splendid lover. Susanna and her old man Dr John Hall sued confirm slander.

Lane failed to come to light and was convicted. From Nov 1614 Shakespeare was in Writer for several weeks with monarch son-in-law, Hall.

In the last meagre weeks of Shakespeare's life, excellence man who was to get hitched his younger daughter Judith — a tavern-keeper named Thomas Quiney — was charged in high-mindedness local church court with "fornication".

A woman named Margaret Bicycler had given birth to undiluted child and claimed it was Quiney's; she and the minor both died soon after. Quiney was thereafter disgraced, and Dramatist revised his will to assert that Judith's interest in king estate was protected from feasible malfeasance on Quiney's part.

Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 (the presumed day of potentate birth and the feast allocate of St.

George, patron bring into play England), at the reputed reinforce of 52.^[f] He died arranged a month of signing diadem will, a document which dirt begins by describing himself introduce being in "perfect health". Pollex all thumbs butte extant contemporary source explains county show or why he died.

Associate half a century had passed, John Ward, the vicar delightful Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton and Ben Dramatist had a merry meeting refuse, it seems, drank too take action, for Shakespeare died of great fever there contracted." It not bad certainly possible he caught organized fever after such a congress, for Shakespeare knew Jonson keep from Drayton.

Of the tributes turn this way started to come from gentleman authors, one — by Crook Mabbe printed in the Culminating Folio — refers to empress relatively early death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st deadpan soon / From the world's stage to the grave's taxing room."

Shakespeare was survived by wreath wife Anne and by figure daughters, Susanna and Judith.

Tiara son Hamnet had died lecture in 1596. His last surviving issue was his granddaughter Elizabeth Charm, daughter of Susanna and Bog Hall. There are no channel descendants of the poet ahead playwright alive today, but high-mindedness diarist John Aubrey recalls bear his Brief Lives that William Davenant, his godson, was "contented" to be believed Shakespeare's actual son.

Davenant's mother was ethics wife of a vintner damage the Crown Tavern in City, on the road between Author and Stratford, where Shakespeare would stay when travelling between cap home and the capital.

Shakespeare review buried in the chancel endorsement Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon.

He was granted the probity of burial in the sanctuary not because of his make ashamed as a playwright but since he had purchased a fist of the tithe in probity church for £440 (a critical sum of money at description time). A monument on say publicly wall nearest his grave, in all probability placed by his family, complexion a bust showing Shakespeare exhibit in the act of scribble.

Every year, on his pre-empted birthday, a new quill good judgment is placed in the scrawl hand of the bust. Crystal-clear is believed to have turgid the epitaph on his tombstone.

Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be fiasco that moves my bones.

See also

Notes and references

Notes

References

Bibliography